Cloning The Face of a Better Tomorrow Essay - 1995 Words

As the world has grown and developed, there has been more of a demand for newer and more efficient ways to solve world problems. Cloning has opened up doors and shined some light onto some optional ways of resolving various global issues. Cloned animals could be used to increase productivity in the manufacturing and sale of meat. Cloning could also improve our agriculture and help to preserve our animal population. Lastly, cloning could quite possibly serve a major purpose in the medical field. In spite of several doubts and risks, cloning is an innovative process that can produce a variety of overwhelming benefits that can better today’s and tomorrow’s future. To many it may seem as if cloning has just recently been discovered but†¦show more content†¦or in the Ripley’s Believe It or Not Museum. Dolly the sheep was the first ever animal to be cloned with the use of adult cells instead of cells that came from embryos. From the breakthrough of Doll y the sheep, scientists have since been able to clone several mammals that include the mouse and cow as mentioned before and now the goat as well. The usage of federal funds in regards to human cloning was outlawed by Bill Clinton in 1997. This action was supposed to only be temporary but lasted longer than promised. Shortly after Bill Clinton’s announcement of banning human cloning that’s funded with federal money, several European countries decided to ban the cloning of humans. The banning of human cloning begins to have a domino effect on other countries and this is best shown by Glenn McGee in which he displayed a table of chronological key events in his article,†Human Cloning†(938-942). The table explained that Japan and Great Britain soon began to take a stand and also ban human cloning but this time the banning of reproductive cloning(938-942). Japan’s ban took place in November of 2000 and Great Britain’s took place in December o f 2001. The first state to legalize cloning to be used for therapeutic uses was California. California made history through the passing of this law in September of 2002. Former president George W. Bush made it known in a speech that he gave in 2002, that he did not support anything dealing with the cloning of humans even forShow MoreRelatedGenetic Engineering: Playing God Essay1796 Words   |  8 Pagesit’s an animal customized with genes of different species. In reality, it could be a human-animal mixture that could result in horror for the scientific community. In myth the chimera was taken down by the warrior Bellerophon, the biotech version faces platoons of lawyers, bioethicists, and biologists† (Hager). nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In this paper, I am going to discuss what has already been done, the unethical side of genetics, and what will happen in the future if we continue to tinker.Read MoreAnalysis Of Aldous Huxley s Brave New World Essay2192 Words   |  9 PagesA Brighter Tomorrow We are a generation of pioneers - we exist on the cusp of a new world, a world explored by Aldous Huxley in his 1931 novel, Brave New World. Within these last few centuries, humanity has experienced a rapid technological growth, and this train shows no signs of stopping. Such a thing is not noteworthy, but merely the natural course; it is logical that as more advances are compounded upon one another, the overall rate of advancement will surely increase, for each stage makesRead MoreThe True Meaning Of Beauty1945 Words   |  8 PagesThe True Meaning of Beauty Imagine this. Walking down the street and seeing duplicates of the same facial features. The same hair, eyes, nose, color of skin, lips, shape of their face, shape of their bodies, all trying to look the same. All of these women trying to have the same look. All women trying to look like the â€Å"ideal western woman† Imagine every race trying to get rid of their features to make themselves look like the ideal Caucasian women. Spending an incredible amount of money going throughRead More A Dystopian Future in Brave New World Essay examples4100 Words   |  17 PagesYuhasz   1).   The misuse of perfected technologies, especially those allowing the manipulation of the human brain and genes, have created a pleasure-seeking world where there is no such thing as spiritual experience, just pleasures of the flesh.   In the face of a transcendent religion, the inhabitants (genetically engineered to exist in one of five classes and condition to believe that the class within whic h they fall is the best one for them) lose their will to rebel against the capitalistic class-divisionsRead MoreWe Are On The Precipice Of Great And Drastic Change Essay2486 Words   |  10 Pageshuman by our current standards.† A lot of progress is being made in fields such as science, biology and which together form biotechnology. Biotechnology is largely being commended by transhumanist specialists and laymen alike. Stem cell research, Cloning, genetically modified food, and hormones are some of the achievements in biotechnology. The importance of this field has become very important. The field may, soon expand beyond therapy and its current limitations and into human enhancement. WithRead MoreDoes Technology Go the Right Way and Will It Save or Ruin Our Civilization?3650 Words   |  15 PagesOccasionally, the technological progress, changes, and advances are both good and bad. Furthermore, human race faces extinction threats and issues, which pulls out a question if we can save the world or not. The planet Earth is a massive place; one person cannot possibly make a difference. However, if many people work at making their town safer and healthier the planet as a whole can become safer and better place to live. Since technology has occupied the world and our way of life, there is no chance to getRead More The Affects of the Human Genome Project on Society Essay3143 Words   |  13 Pagesever growing thirst for knowledge as we have for many hundreds of years now. Scientists work around the clock studying the affects of nearly everything they can think of to conduct experiments on. This quest for knowledge is the supposed start to a better life for man kind and ultimately a world without disease or hunger. The human genome project is one that has been going on for about 20 years. This project set out to map, down to the last detail, every part of the human DNA structure (â€Å"Human†).Read More The Discovery Of Economy Essay3554 Words   |   15 Pagessocially is thousands of years ahead of the developed. Coming now to the definition of economy of the world, we must Firstly abolish the currency value system and pave way to the formation of an economic and monetary union of all the nations on the face of this world. Let the currencies be what they are, simultaneously allowing the currencies of all countries to be equivalent in value. Let one US dollar be equal in value to one KSA Rial and also be equal in value to one Argentinean peso, to one SpanishRead MoreEssay on How Technology is Represented in Star Wars4384 Words   |  18 PagesWars is a great artifact to study to get a better understanding of our own technological advancements. In this report, we focus specifically on how the Empire, the Rebels, and the Non-Warring people of the film acquired, developed, and used technology and how that relates to our society today. Rationale Although Star Wars takes place in a galaxy far, far away, that does not mean that it is not significant or that it cannot be used to help us better understand our own society. Star Wars hasRead MoreChinas model7412 Words   |  30 Pagesconsequences and powerful implications for America [Murray 1993: 1]. Megan Ryan and Christopher Flavin of the Worldwatch Institute agree: The prospect of one-fifth of humanity suddenly entering the consumer age will force industrial countries. . .to face up to the unsustainability of their current practices. The world cannot afford to have another billion people driving around in big cars or eating fast food hamburgers (Ryan and Flavin 1995: 129). The Chinese, it is widely agreed, cannot be allowed

Essay about President Bush And Us Foreign Policy - 1683 Words

The United States election in 2000 raised a debate between democrat and republican and in the end the American people chose a new leader Mr. George w. Bush. President Bush clearly defined foreign policy objectives and goals. I have seen and hear our dear President Bush foreign policy after September 11. Following this, Bush has established its top priorities in foreign policy. He claims that an acts in the government to improve the international community through negotiation and cooperation. Likewise President Bush remark It is to inspire and be inspired by other nations to work together toward a peaceful and prosperous future (BBC News). Bush, as well as our society, feels the president should be strong- especially in international†¦show more content†¦Bush, as well as our society, feels the president should be strong- especially in international politics and policies. When the United States was attacked September 11, 2001, the people looked to the president to lead, and in essence, seek revenge. On both of these levels of domestic considerations, we will never know to exactly what extent they influence the presidents choice of action, but they help us in understanding some of the foreign policy decisions. Going beyond the individual to the expectations of the position, the role consideration plays an influential domestic part in the response to an external event and ultimately foreign policymaking. Furthermore to do this, Bushs administration has outlined some specific objectives. Allies are crucial to conduct foreign operations, so the Bush has joined several international organizations that allow it to serve at the forefront of international policy. Some of the more famous ones are the United Nations, which is the biggest organization and has many sub-level organizations, the World Trade Organization, the World Health Organization, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank Group (Directory of Economic, Commodity and Developmental Organiza tions). Knowing that United States is involved in these international organizations President Bush refuses to listen to UN (United Nation) andShow MoreRelatedGeorge W. Bush s Foreign Policy Successful1601 Words   |  7 PagesBush’s foreign policy successful?  ¬ â€Å"Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shatter steel, but they cannot dent the steel American resolve† - George. W. Bush Prior to World War I, the United States’ foreign policy remained predominantly isolated. However, upon the end of the war, American foreign policy saw a pragmatic shift from its original isolationistic nature to XXXXX . America’s policy thenRead MoreThe War On Terror : An Example Of All Three Foreign Policy Tools Is Afghanistan Essay1303 Words   |  6 PagesThe War on Terror required utilizing pre-emptive war, regime change, and unilateralism. An example of all three foreign policy tools is Afghanistan. Bush took a hard line approach with the Taliban government of Afghanistan, who had a semi-friendly working relationship with Osama bin Laden’s terrorist group, al Qaeda, by declaring that if the Taliban government did not hand over bin Laden, the U.S. would invade Afghanistan. The War on Terror created a renewed moralism that had effectively disappearedRead MoreThe Impact Of Public Opinion On U.S. Foreign Policy Since Vietnam1692 Words   |  7 Pagesattitudes have affected policymakers decisions in his book, The Impact of Public Opinion on U.S. Foreign Policy Since Vietnam. During the Persian Gulf War, public opinion ultimately shaped policy. How the policy was attained, not the goals of the policy were shaped by the public opinion. The Persian Gulf War would be the largest use of the U.S. military since Vietnam, thus causing the Bush administration to consider how the public would react when they presented the crisis. A lack of consensusRead MoreU.s. Obama s Foreign Policy1621 Words   |  7 PagesObama was elected president in 2008 .WHen Obama was running for president many people did not know him. He was unknown to the general public. When Obama was elected many people were happy and wanted him to win because Obama promised to end war in Afghanistan and Iraq. Which he did during the end of his presidency he ended the Iraq war and also signed a nuclear deal with Iraq from obtaining nuclear weapons. He tended to keep away from foreign policy. Some of Obama s Major Foreign Policy accomplishmentsRead MoreAnalysis Of George W. Bush s National Insecur ity1264 Words   |  6 Pages George W. Bush is often described as the worst president the US has ever had. For many, this harsh criticism is propelled by the great challenges of his presidency and the sheer problems that were left to his successor. Much of the reproach for Bush is valid, both domestic and international affairs worsened due to mistakes made under his leadership. We saw a rise in unemployment, an economy on the verge of collapse, and terrorist actions triggering two wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Despite theRead MoreAmerican Strategy For U.s. Foreign Policy829 Words   |  4 PagesWalter Russel Mead, a Senior Fellow for U.S. Foreign Policy at the Council on Foreign Relations, believes that â€Å"American strategy for U.S. foreign policy is shaped from four distinct schools of thought: Hamilton and his protectionist toward commence, Wilson and his sense of moral principles; Jefferson and his maintenance of our democratic system; and Jackson, the advocate of populist values and military might.â₠¬  Henry Kissinger argued that one of these schools has dominated American strategy and statedRead MoreBushs Views On Obamas Presidency1664 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout his tenure Bush was a staunch advocate of free market policies, often justifying his approach with American productivity. For instance in his 2006 State of the Union address Bush asserted that â€Å"with open markets and a level playing field, no one can out-produce or out-compete the American worker† (Bush, State of Union, 2006). This unmistakeably shows Bush’s favouring of free trade policies over protectionism. This belief is, to an extent, reflected in his practice as Bush did enact a seriesRead MoreThe United States : A Global Power And The Attack On The Twin Towers Essay1242 Words   |  5 Pagesfighter planes attacked the United States specifically the American Naval base at Pearl Harbor near Honolulu. This surprise attack was tragic and killed over 2,000 soldiers and sailors and injured an other 1,000 soldiers. The day after this attack President Franklin D Roosevelt asked congress to declare war on Japan and they approved this declaration. Not only did the USA declared on Japan , they joined world war 2 which had been alive for two years already. Relations between Japan and the U.S. werenRead More North Korea And The New Administration Essays971 Words   |  4 PagesTalks have recently resumed from a visit by President Kim Dae Jung of South Korea with President Bush on March 6. The Bush Administration is undertaking what it calls a through review of American policy towards North Korea and its president Kim Jong II. It is clear that the Bush Administration is taking a far harder line than the Clinton Administration did in 1994 that tried unsuccessfully, to close a deal on missile control before they left office. The Bush Administration has called for â€Å"verification†Read MoreAssess the View That, in Practice, Presidential Power Is Restricted to Issues Relating to Foreign Policy.725 Words   |  3 Pagesin practice, presidential power is restricted to issues relating to foreign policy. The office of president today is very different from that envisaged by the framers of the constitution in 1787- the circumstances that have given rise to modern presidential power could not have been foreseen. However some argue that the office of president is one of inherent weakness rather than strength, and that the powers of the president were no guarantee that power could actually be exercised. In his view

araby and the things they carried Essay - 848 Words

Head in the Clouds The main characters in â€Å"Araby† by James Joyce and â€Å"The Things They Carried† by Tim O’Brien are both at war with fantasy and reality. Both of these characters are ones motivated by their infatuation with woman they hardly know but believe that they love them. Both these stories tell us that their fantasizing and objectification of these women are used to cover up their true feelings. In return this offers the main characters an escape from reality. Through the exchange of letters between Lt. Jimmy Cross and the center of his infatuation Martha in â€Å"The Things They Carried†, he allowed himself to become more obsessed with the thought of her. The letters simply state the events Martha encounter in her daily life, lines†¦show more content†¦With religion being a very prominent factor in the lives of the characters in this story, the narrator neglects to realize that this factor will make it nearly impossible for them to be together. With the inability to realize this, mixed with his teenage hormones, this causes him to be engulfed by his objectification of Manegen’s sister. â€Å"My body was like a harp and her words and gestures were like fingers running along the wires† (Joyce, 217). He allows her to control him so heavily; simply by the way she moves or speaks, he doesn’t allow himself to live his own life as the person he truly is. By not allowing himself to see anything else past this girl he is idealizing, he shuts himself off from the rest of the things in his life, the more important things, such as work and school. We know that the narrator doesn’t come from very much money, which means for him to take what little money he is given and plan to spend it on this girl, he is truly obsessed. A child in his right mind would save the money he is given, to get the things he needs or even wants for himself. His infatuation with her makes him feel as though he has to do anything he could to please her, even giving her all he had. Through an epiphany at the end he realizes that he was romanticizing his relationship with Manegen’s sister far too much. He was willing to give up the little money he has in order to please a girl he hardly knows in order to simply entertain a fantasy. When theShow MoreRelatedThe Things They Carried and Araby Essay1353 Words   |  6 PagesBoth â€Å"The Things They Carried† by Tim O’Brien and â€Å"Araby† by James Joyce portray the lives of two individuals who are in love. â€Å"The Things They Carried† is about a young lieutenant na med Jimmy Cross during the Vietnam War. Lieutenant Cross was incapable of focusing on the war because of his constant thoughts of the girl he loved, Martha. â€Å"Araby† is about a boy who is infatuated with a girl he has never had a conversation with. Although both protagonists in â€Å"The Things They Carried† and â€Å"Araby† eventuallyRead MoreThe Things They Carried By Tim O Brien And Araby By James Joyce892 Words   |  4 Pagesboth pieces of literature â€Å"The Things They Carried† by Tim O’Brien and â€Å"Araby† by James Joyce. The authors portray the lives of two individuals who are in love. The idea of love concerning a girl and expectations on being with this girl they love. The authors in both texts demonstrate too us that love can be very hopeful, but it can emotionally and mentally change us. The authors assert to the reader attention in the literature â€Å"Araby† and â€Å" The Things They Carried† that love can be hopeful butRead More The Decline of Chivalry Explored in Araby and AP Essay1211 Words   |  5 PagesRomantic gestures have been seen as a useful motive to win hearts of women for centuries. However, as society constantly changes, the effectiveness of these chivalrous acts has diminished. In James Joyce’s â€Å"Araby† and John Updike’s â€Å"AP†, this theory is explored, both telling the story of a boy whose efforts to impress the girl of their desires fail. As said by Well’s in his critical analysis of these stories, â€Å"Both the protagonists have come to realize that romantic gestures—in fact, that the wholeRead MoreAnalysis Of James Joyce s The Unnamed Young Boy 1388 Words   |  6 Pagesdilemma that makes it hard for him to make clear decisions. All these come at his adolescent stage whe n he feels like he should identify with his sexual feelings. However, his religion fights against his sense of romance to Mangan s sister. They feel carried away by his feeling, but held back by religion. The boy keeps a distance from what his fantasies and what he cherishes the most, but he does not know the best way to express his feeling for the lady he has fallen in love that is older than him. JamesRead MoreWit Flim Mid Term734 Words   |  3 Pagescharacter. Characterization can make the story more interesting and creates the story to be more detailed. Two stories in which characterization makes the story better and are similar in the way that the themes go is â€Å"Aamp;P† written by John Updlike and â€Å"Araby† written by James Joyce. Both story is about a worker who is admiring a woman from a far. In â€Å"Aamp;P† Updlike characterize the three girls who walk in the store that he is working. He describes in details of how the girls looked and even the colorRead More Comparing Allah and God Essay3292 Words   |  14 Pagesbecause he felt compelled to read it and expose its errors. In short, Zahid converted to Christianity and shared the Bible’s teachings with everyone. As a result, he was considered a traitor. Zahid began to experience much of the persecution he had carried out against many Christians. For two years he was imprisoned, beaten, tortured, and eventually sentenced to be hung to death (DcTalk 53-54). The sort of persecution Zahid dealt out and later experienced himself occurs daily in various places ofRead MoreThe Penang Second Brigde in Malaysia3068 Words   |  12 Pagesalso the 3rd Chief Minister of Penang, Tan Sri Dr. Koh Tsu Koon. Later, Malaysian government unveiled the plan to construct the bridge in August 2006. The project is implemented in the 9th Malaysian Plan. It is the largest civil construction work carried out in Malaysia in the past 2 decades. The construction of the bridge officially started in November 2008 after all the planning and procedure done. The bridge is currently projected completed on February 2014. The bridge is built under the cooperationRead MoreANALIZ TEXT INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS28843 Words   |  116 Pagesplot. It can, in fact, occur at any moment. In James Joyce’s â€Å"Araby† and in a number of the other companion stories in â€Å"Dubliners† the crisis – in the form of a sudden illumination that Joyce called an epiphany – occurs at the very end of the story, and the falling action and the resolution are dispensed with altogether. Exposition and complication can also be omitted in favour of a plot that begins in medias res (â€Å"in the midst of things†). In much modern and contemporary fiction the plot consists

Financial Cycle and Comparative Macroeconomics

Question: Discuss about the Financial Cycle and Comparative Macroeconomics. Answer: Introduction: As stated by Panizza, U. and Presbitero (2013), GDP is the monetary value of the products and services produced within a geographical region of an economy and within a financial year. Real GDP is the measure of inflation adjusted economic output. Real GDP is calculated by dividing nominal GDP with GDP deflator. In the view of Filis and Chatziantoniou (2014), when GDP of an economy rises, per capita income hikes upward. Increase in per capita income cannot improve the standard of living completely. Increase in GDP indicates growth of the economy. However, economic growth does not ensure the development of the economy. As opined by Del Negro, Giannoni and Schorfheide (2014), growth of real GDP reflects only the increase in total money value of the output. It does not indicate the improvement of every section of people. In the view of Filis and Chatziantoniou (2014), growth of one sector may happen with the contraction of other sector as the growing sector may use the resources of contr acting sector. During the phase of industrialisation in an economy, air and water pollution rises to affect the health of people. Growth of an economy does not ensure healthy life of human being within a polluted environment. Diseases in the society may increase in the absence of proper awareness and may reduce life expectancy. Standard of living depends on the development of other aspects of life such as education, health. GDP growth rate fails to measure income disparities and thus extent of poverty among people belong to different income group. For example, China has the second highest GDP among all the countries next to United States, although it stands at 84nd rank in the social progress index (Porter, Stern and Green 2016). Therefore, it can be stated that real GDP is not a good measure of standard of living. Unemployment rate is the total number of unemployed workers in an economy among the entire labour force. Unemployment rate is the percentage of unemployed people of the total labour force, who are seeking job. Unemployment arises in the economy when production of total goods and services are less than total demand. Elsby, Hobijn and ?ahin (2013) cited that full employment in an economy is achieved when a country utilises all resources efficiently in the production of goods and services. Different types of unemployment arise in an economy such as seasonal, frictional, structural and cyclical. Frictional unemployment arises when a person switches between jobs. Unemployment arises during the recession and depression stage, when aggregate demand in the economy is not sufficient to create jobs in the economy. Unemployment rate rises, when the minimum wage is set above the market clearing level. Firms are unwilling to employ more workers as the cost of production rises. According to Okuns Law, there is negative relationship between growth rate of real GDP and the cyclical unemployment (Bernal-Verdugo, Furceri and Guillaume 2012). It indicates that when real GDP falls, unemployment rate rises. In the words of Cho and Newhouse (2013), a natural rate of unemployment always observed in an economy. As stated by Pissarides (2013), structural and seasonal unemployment are unavoidable in the economy. Seasonal unemployment is seen mainly in the agriculture sector, which is mostly dependent on the nature. A farmer becomes unemployed when weather is not in favour of producing crops. A person without having required skills cannot be recruited at a different sector in short run. Structural unemployment is unavoidable in the short run. This kind of unemployment occurs in the economy, when an economy transits from one phase to another such as change from agricultural base to the industrial base. This type of unemployment is unavoidable. Price of goods and services falls in an economy, when there is a gap in demand and supply of goods. Consumer price index is the weighted average of the prices of all consumer goods (Mankiw 2014). CPI inflation occurs in the economy with the increase in the price index. Inflation captures changes in the price level of the products used by households in the economy. Year Annual Inflation rate 2005 83 - 2006 85.9 3% 2007 87.9 2% 2008 91.8 4% 2009 93.4 2% 2010 96.1 3% 2011 99.3 3% 2012 101 2% 2013 103.5 2% 2014 106 2% 2015 107.6 2% Table 1: CPI index ad inflation rate in Australia (Source: abs.gov.au, 2016) It is agreed that inflation rises with increase in price of goods and services. During government expenditure in the economy rises, aggregate consumption demand rises due to increase in per capita income. CPI includes all the goods demanded by households. Therefore, increasing per capita income raises the aggregate demand. However, in short run, it is not possible for the suppliers to increase production at the level of demand. Hence, a gap arises in the economy (Borio 2014). In order to meet the demand, sellers raise the price of goods and thus consumer price index rises. Inflation occurs in the economy due to upward movement of CPI. Figure 1 shows that inflation rate in Australia has a falling trend and remains at 2% from 2012. Aggregate demand is the sum of total demand for goods and services in an economy at a stated price level. Aggregate demand curve slopes downward as the demand for goods and services move in the opposite direction of price level (Mankiw 2014). Aggregate demand curve shows the relationship between the aggregate price level and the real output of the economy. Equation of aggregate demand is stated as follows: AD = C + I + G + NX, where C is consumption expenditure, I represents investment expenditure, G shows government expenditure and NX is the net export demand. One of the reasons for negatively slope of AD curve is fall in real income. When price level rises or inflation occurs in the economy, real money value falls. Hence, purchasing power of individual falls and this affects aggregate demand. Furthermore, when import rises and export falls due to fall in price of foreign goods, export sector contracts and there is fall in AD. Another reason is effect of interest rate. Nominal interest rate rises when inflation occurs in the economy (Borio 2014). When interest rate in the economy is high, investment level falls and real output level falls as well. Per capita income falls with the decrease in real output. AD curve is downward sloping for these reasons. In the view of Mankiw (2014), changes in resources can be adjusted with the demand. It is believed that after a point output reaches at the optimal level by using all the resources such as labour, capital and technology optimally. Long run supply curve is vertical as it shows that supply become static in the long run for a given level of resources, when real output is fixed. Movement occurs along the LRAS curve only due to change in aggregate demand. Short run aggregate supply curve shifts due to change in wage rate, technology, and increase in interest rate. Short run supply curve is upward sloping as suppliers get incentive to produce more output, when price level rises. There is a positive relationship between the aggregate price level and the real output of the economy. Hence, the SRAS curve upward sloping. References Bernal-Verdugo, L.E., Furceri, D. and Guillaume, D., 2012. Labor market flexibility and unemployment: new empirical evidence of static and dynamic effects.Comparative Economic Studies,54(2), pp.251-273. Borio, C., 2014. The financial cycle and macroeconomics: What have we learnt?.Journal of Banking Finance,45, pp.182-198. Cho, Y. and Newhouse, D., 2013. How did the great recession affect different types of workers? Evidence from 17 middle-income countries.World Development,41, pp.31-50. Del Negro, M., Giannoni, M.P. and Schorfheide, F., 2014.Inflation in the great recession and new keynesian models(No. w20055). National Bureau of Economic Research. Elsby, M.W., Hobijn, B. and ?ahin, A., 2013. Unemployment dynamics in the OECD.Review of Economics and Statistics,95(2), pp.530-548. Filis, G. and Chatziantoniou, I., 2014. Financial and monetary policy responses to oil price shocks: evidence from oil-importing and oil-exporting countries.Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting,42(4), pp.709-729. Mankiw, N.G., 2014.Principles of macroeconomics. Cengage Learning. Panizza, U. and Presbitero, A.F., 2013. Public debt and economic growth in advanced economies: A survey.Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics,149(2), pp.175-204. Pissarides, C.A., 2013. Unemployment in the great recession.Economica,80(319), pp.385-403. Porter, M., Stern, S. and Green, M. 2016. Social progress index 2016. [online] socialprogressimperative.org. Available at: https://www.socialprogressimperative.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/SPI-2016-Main-Report.pdf [Accessed 4 Jan. 2017].

Entrepreneur and Marketing- Free-Samples- Myassignmenthelp.com

Qustions: 1.Find a Non-Profit Organization and how they are using financial Marketing. 2.Find two Companies one for Manufacturing and other from servicing Company See how they are following Financial Marketing. Answers: 1.Non-profit organisations are aimed at improving the society and making it a considerable place for people to reside. These organisations have no profit-making motive and seek support from the Government or any other business sectors. Rizzo (2015) stated that at times, the community in which it is set up also contributes to the cause of the welfare of the society. Thus, non-profit organisations do not have to market itself for any profit-making objective. In this regard, it can be said that financial marketing is also not required in an extensive manner for these organisations. Financial marketing is used to trade securities related to finances, trade, commodities as well as items of value that helps in the balance of supply and demand. According to Mintz and Currim (2013), financial marketing defines the marketing terminology in an efficient manner. This is because even in financial marketing the exchange of services takes place. However, for a non-profit organisation aimed at improving the social, financial marketing may be ineffective in terms of achieving the goals of an organisation. The trading of bonds and stocks are hardly applicable in case of non-profit organisations. However, some non-profit organisations can use the financial marketing in an effective manner than the others. It can be said that non-profit organisations involved with a particular business or Government can make investments in terms of achieving its goals. In this context, an example can be considered in order to understand the ways by which financial marketing can be used by a non-profit organisation. Clean Up Australia is a non-profit organisation that aims to eliminate any waste materials and address the issues that arise due to shortage or excess water and climatic change. Ian Kiernan founded the organisation in 1989 and in collaboration with different business organisations, community and the Government have managed to achieve proper results for the country. The success of the organisation can be attributed to the fact that it is an annual event in the country since its inception (Cleanupaustraliaday.org.au. 2017). In this context, the use of financial marketing by Clean Up Australia can be analysed. As stated earlier, financial marketing is the exchange of stuff between two or more entities. In the case of Clean Up Australia, the exchange of items required for the cleaning of the country can be used as part of financial marketing deal (Ennew, Waite and Waite 2013). This can be done because the company received support from the various profitable business centres as well as the Government. Apart from this, the productive use of the funds can be another important use for this company. This can be done by using the funds for the purchase of the equipment and upgrading them as per the changes in the society. Thus, financial marketing can be used effectively by nonprofit organisations in order to maintain the proper work that is being done in the society. In the case of Clean Up Air, the use of financial marketing is done in an effective and efficient manner. 2.According to Armstrong et al. (2014), societal marketing involves the marketing decisions that are taken by a company keeping in mind the needs and wants of the customers. This, in turn, leads to the assessment of the requirements of the company and the interests of the society. The aim of every company is to satisfy the customers and ensure that the responsibilities towards the society are also maintained keeping in mind the goals of the organisation. However, different industries set about different objectives while implementing the societal marketing concept in the organisation. In this case, the examples of manufacturing company as well as a service company can be taken into consideration. Moose Toys is an Australian toy manufacturing company situated in Melbourne. Brain Hamersfeld set up the company in 1985. The company has its branches in 85 countries and in the modern day is one of the top toy manufacturing companies in Australia (Moosetoys.com 2017). In this regard, it can be said that the company need to keep in mind the requirements of the company as well as the satisfaction of the customers. The target market of the company includes the children of the country. Hence, it is important that the company manufacture products that are safe as well as attractive for the children. On the other hand, the company also focuses on the ways to improve the requirements of the sector. With the expansion into a global market, the Moose toys have employed over 200 employees in countries like Australia, US and Hong Kong. Hence, it is required that the company make ample profit by collaborating with other companies. The licensing of Shopkins and the collaboration of it with McDon alds has resulted for further betterment of the company (Moosetoys.com 2017). Sydney Environmental and Soil Laboratory (SESL) Australia, is a private company that provides lab testing and services for landscape, environment, Government and so on. It offers to collect a sample for testing the sample of soil, water and the ground in various regions of the country. Simone Leake set up the company in 1983 for the sole purpose of providing support to the people of the society and ensuring that the services it provides benefits to the society. It also provides training courses for students pursuing a career in science (Sesl.com.au. 2017). In this regard, the use of societal marketing by this company can also be analysed. The company devotes time for the welfare of the society. Hence, it can be said that the company focuses on achieving the long-term interest of the society as well as maintain the requirements for the company. This can be done by testing for any harmful particles in the soil and water that may exist and cause harm to the people. It also ensures that the resources required for conducting these tests are available to the company. Hence, the focus remains more on the interests of the society and the company rather than the customers. Hence, this is a significant difference when compared with the societal marketing of a manufacturing industry. Reference Armstrong, G., Adam, S., Denize, S. and Kotler, P., 2014.Principles of marketing. Pearson Australia. Cleanupaustraliaday.org.au. (2017).Clean Up Australia Day - Official Site. [online] Available at: https://www.cleanupaustraliaday.org.au/ [Accessed 24 Aug. 2017]. Ennew, C., Waite, N. and Waite, R., 2013.Financial services marketing: An international guide to principles and practice. Routledge. Melanthiou, Y., 2016. Messages Not Getting Through: Societal Marketing to the Rescue.Journal of Promotion Management,22(2), pp.195-196. Mintz, O. and Currim, I.S., 2013. What drives managerial use of marketing and financial metrics and does metric use affect performance of marketing-mix activities?.Journal of Marketing,77(2), pp.17-40. Moosetoys.com. (2017).Home | Moose Toys. [online] Available at: https://www.moosetoys.com/ [Accessed 24 Aug. 2017]. Rizzo, T., 2015. Maximising results with data-driven financial marketing strategies.Journal of Brand Strategy,4(2), pp.114-126. Sesl.com.au. (2017).Environmental Consulting Soil Testing | SESL Australia. [online] Available at: https://sesl.com.au/ [Accessed 24 Aug. 2017].

Sexual Assault Essay Example

Sexual Assault Essay Sexual Assault Tre’shaun Hambrick CRJ308: Psychology of Criminal Behavior Instructor Tracey Mallett We will write a custom essay sample on Sexual Assault specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Sexual Assault specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Sexual Assault specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer October 6, 2012 Sexual Assault Whenever the term ‘sexual assault’ is mentioned, most people think about rape. While rape is falling within its context, sexual assault incorporates a plethora of unwanted sexual advances that include, rape, voyeurism, incest, exhibitionism, sexual harassment, child sexual abuse and any other nonconsensual sexual contact (Bartol Bartol., 2004). Due to wider scope and socio-cultural backgrounds of individuals, people may sexually assault another person without their knowledge. This could also be the reason why estimating its prevalence is near to impossible. This is because most people do not realize that they have been assaulted and they fail to report the sexual assault incidences. The fact that most of these assaults are normally committed by close relatives or friends could also be the reason why most cases go unreported (Clements et al., 2004). Either way, sexual assault causes serious physical, social, emotional and psychological damages to the victim. It is the ob jective of this essay to explore three of the psychological effects of sexual assault on the victims. It is important to note that sexual assault can cause harmful psychological effects that can become hard to correct or treat. Victims of sexual assault commonly experience Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) which is a psychological disorder characterized by severe feelings of anxiety, fear, and stress long after the ordeal. Female rape victims are especially vulnerable to this condition. A person is said to have acute PTSD when he or she manifests the symptoms for less than three months. The condition becomes chronic when the victim exhibits the symptoms for more than three months. A person develops PTSD symptoms immediately following the attack. About 94% of rape victims develop PTSD symptoms immediately following the rape ordeal. Although this percentage decreases over time, some victims are not able to overcome it, and their symptoms continue for many years after the traumatic event (Bartol Bartol, 2004). Symptoms of PTSD include flashbacks of experience in the mind of the victim, repeated dreams or memories of the events, hyper-arousal, and frightening thoughts. Many victims do whatever they can to avoid anything or anyone that might remind them of the traumatic event. This leads to the victim experiencing feelings of isolation from friends. The person feels detached, and he or she might lose interest in things that he or she used to enjoy. Some victims change their routine to avoid a reoccurrence of the incident. Many victims also feel helpless, and they experience feelings of horror. In children, it can manifest through bedwetting, acting out during playtime or tendency to cling to their parents or other adults who, they trust. Another symptom of PTSD is anxiety, which in turn leads to other problems. Anxiety leads to difficulties in sleeping and concentration. Sexual assault victims with PTSD have negative thoughts. Some victims experience mental defeat. Their negative thoughts lead them to imagine negative response from others. Many of the victims tend to blame themselves, and even those who are around them for what they experienced. Victims with PTSD who receive little support tend to exhibit more symptoms, compared to the victims who receive support from their loved ones and others around them. Symptoms are usually strongest immediately following the traumatic event, but they diminish after a while. The severity and length of the symptoms also depends on the victim’s perception of the event. The victim’s symptoms will be more severe and will last longer, if he or she thinks that the trauma was intentional rather than accidental. Rape victims and other victims of sexual assault will have more severe symptoms of PTSD. Some people develop lifetime prevalence of the condition. Lifetime prevalence rates are higher among women. This is significant considering most sexual assault victims are female. If not treated early, the condition can become persistent (Bartol Bartol, 2004). People’s thoughts are important determinants of behavior. Sexual assault victims with PTSD have many negative thoughts, and this not only affects their perception of people, but it also determines their behavior. PTSD treatment includes cognitive behavioral therapy, which encourages the victims to talk more about themselves and other people. This form of therapy enables the victim to deal with his or her emotions and thoughts. The therapist exposes the victims to the feelings that he or she associates with the trauma. By re-exposing these feelings, the therapist is able to re-adjust the behavioral response of the victim. The victims are able to examine the consequences of their actions on their thoughts and feelings. It is important for the victims to feel that they have the support of those who are around them. Cognitive behavioral therapy enables the victim to relearn social skills. Treatment of PTSD also includes using medication. The medication helps in reducing the anxiet y and stress that the victim experiences. In treating PTSD victims therapists concentrate on the present situation. They do not focus on what the victim should have done to avoid the situation. Doing so will only enhance the negative emotions that the person feels, and this will lead to the victims blaming themselves. Second, sexual assault is also known to cause depression. Depression involves more than feelings of sadness, as it can cause a person to experience physical pain and it interferes with the victim’s daily life. Some victims do not realize that they are suffering from depression because of ambiguity of their symptoms. Some of the symptoms of depression are common occurrences to some individuals. Other symptoms are a reflection of another condition. This is a condition characterized by prolonged sadness, indecisiveness, loss of appetite, feelings of hopelessness and low self-esteem, prolonged headaches, lack of coordination, fear, anxiety and extreme worry. These symptoms affect a person’s daily life. Depression is a serious psychological condition since it lowers the body’s immunity, and can lead to suicidal thoughts and even death. It can affect any sexual assault victim regardless of their age, gender or religion (Clements et al., 2004). Victims lose interest in things that they used to enjoy, and they often feel overwhelmed and exhausted. Lack of interest, coupled with low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness contribute to the individual withdrawing socially. Some victims experience frequent crying spells, and others have suicidal thoughts. Victims become agitated, ad they experience extreme irritability. People with depression experience unexplained headaches and stomachaches. People who experience these symptoms for more than two weeks are said to be suffering from depression. Depression among women tends to be more common, and they experience depression symptoms in different severity from men (Lewis-Hall, 2002). Women are more likely to have appetite problems and frequent headaches compared to men. They are also more likely to feel exhausted and suffer anxiety than the men are. People having depression are frustrated because they feel that they are not performing to their capacity. Many people downplay the importance of seeking treatment when they are suffering from depression. This is because some people consider depression a sign of weakness, and others think that they will overcome it on their own. Leaving depression untreated can worsen and prolong it, and it can worsen other illnesses and conditions that the person might be having. Women respond differently to treatment differently, in that they take longer to recover than the men do (Lewis-Hall, 2002). It is possible to treat depression, and physicians and therapists use a variety of methods when treating depressed patients. They can use medication such as antidepressants, most of which are effective. However, many therapists do not recommend the use of antidepressants in children because of associated side effects. Although antidepressants benefit many people suffering from depression, many people who suffer from depression because of sexual assault find it more beneficial to go through therapy sessions. Therapists can use interpersonal therapy, which helps the victims improve their relationship with other people. The therapists focus on communication skills, and the victim’s relationships to other people. Through analysis, the therapist is able to determine the cause of a person’s sadness and loneliness, and she focuses on solving this problem. Therapists can also use psychodynamic therapy, which involves understanding the effects of the victims’ emotions on their behavior. Cognitive behavioral therapy is also important in enabling the victim to refocus his or her thoughts. Finding the right treatment for depression is important in reducing chances of reoccurrence. Some people respond better when they talk about their experiences to people who have shared similar experiences. They feel that they can relate better because other victims know and understand what they are going through. Support groups enable people to cope with depression. The victims learn that the y are not weak because they are suffering from depression. They get to hear the experiences of other individuals who have gone through similar or worse situations. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), also referred to as Multiple Personality Disorder, is another psychological effect associated with sexual assault. It is a condition where an individual’s thoughts and feelings become detached from their immediate reality. Individuals with DID manifest different personalities, each with a different perception of self and environment. As such, a sexual assault victim suffering from this condition may in one occasion regard herself with high esteem but latter regard herself as worthless. Most cases of DID are reported in cases where the sexual assault experience occurred in their childhood. DID is a dangerous condition and it can persist for a long time (Petrack Hedge, 2003). Dissociation refers to a situation where a person’s thoughts, actions, memories, and feelings are different from his or her immediate reality. When children experience sexual abuse, they tend to go into dissociative states, which they create as an escape away from the current abuse that is their reality. They do this if they do not see any way of escaping their situation. The more the abuse continues, the more the children continue forming different realities. There are different forms of dissociation .depersonalization occurs because of fatigue, different psychiatric disorders, anxiety or stress. It happens when one changes perception of self and the person feels detached from his or her body. Derealization refers to a person’s perception of change in the environment. The person feels that the things surrounding him or her are not real. dissociative amnesia is temporal memory loss, which seems to occur naturally, and it is not triggered by factors such as intoxication or injury. Other forms include dissociative fugue and alteration of identity (Chu, 2011) Although DID cases exist in both sexes, they are more common among women. Common symptoms of this disorder include mood swings, depression, panic attacks, phobias, sleep disorders such as night terrors and insomnia, PSTD symptoms such as flashbacks, and eating disorders. The victims may experience severe headaches and other aches in different parts of the body. Some of the victims develop self-harming behavior and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. The victims have difficulty remembering parts of their past. These symptoms are similar to symptoms of other psychiatric disorders. This makes it more difficult to determine the right diagnosis. Victims of DID should ensure that they get immediate help to maximize their chances of recovery. The most effective treatment in this case is psychotherapy. The treatment can be lengthy and painful for adults because it involves recalling past painful events. The therapists have to structure and pace the therapy in such a way that it will not overwhelm the victim. The therapist helps the patient come to terms with the feelings that they associate with the events. Some therapists use hypnosis to help the victims remember their childhood experiences. Although some therapists use medication to manage some of the symptoms, most of the therapists are careful about using medication because of the negative effects they have on the victims. In summary, it is apparent that the psychological effects of sexual assault are far reaching and can affect the victim’s social and physical life. While some of the conditions can be treated through therapies, others like DID, if not identified at an early stage, can lead to permanent damage of the victim’s identity and personality. It is also worth noting that the effects are not only limited to the victim but also affect to primary care givers. It also affects family members thus expanding the scope of their danger. References: Bartol, C. R., Bartol A. M. (2004). Introduction to Forensic Psychology: Research and Application. U.S.A: Sage Chu, A. J. (2011). Rebuilding shattered lives: Treating complex PTSD and dissociative disorders. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons Clements P. T., Speck P. M., Crane P. A. Faulkner M. J. (2004). Issues and Dynamics of Sexually Assaulted Adolescents and their Families. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 13(4) 138-274 Lewis-Hall, F. (2002). Psychiatric illness in women: Emerging treatments and research. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub Petrak J. Hedge B. (2003). The Trauma of Sexual Assault: treatment, Prevention and Practice. United Kingdom: John Wiley Sons

The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky Essay Example

The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky Essay Example The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky Paper The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky Paper Born in Czarist Russia in 1896, Lev Vygotsky lived a relatively short life, dying of tuberculosis in 1934. Because he was Jewish, the law limited his higher education options. He was, however, one of the 5% maximum of Jews permitted admission to a university. He was, however, not permitted to fulfill his ambition to pursue training as a teacher. In consequence, between the years of 1913 and 1917, Vygotsky studied medicine, philosophy, history, and law. [1] Vygotsky began teaching in his home city almost immediately after the 1917 Communist Revolution. However, he was disappointed if he anticipated that this upheaval would result in greater overall freedom. The ascension of Joseph Stalin to power in 1922 meant that all of Vygotskys scholarly work was to be accomplished in an ever more repressive police state. Vygotskys investigations of child development and educational psychology were influenced by his own Marxism – a philosophy that emphasizes the importance of ones social origins and place in the scheme of production. [2] Vygotskys works, consisting of more than one hundred books and articles, were not published until after his death in 1934. Just two years later they were suppressed. This suppression endured for two decades during which time his works were held in a secret library that could only be accessed by permission of the Peoples Commissariat for Internal Affairs - commonly known as the NKVD. [3] Despite this prolonged attempt to suppress his ideas, Vygotskys work survived and, particularly after the Cold War, came to wield considerable influence in the field of educational psychology. [4] I. Theory of Value: What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning? What are the goals of education? Vygotskys stresses the importance of looking at each child as an individual who learns distinctively. Consequently, the knowledge and skills that are worthwhile learning varies with the individual. The overall goal of education according to Vygotsky is to generate and lead development which is the result of social learning through internalization of culture and social relationships. [5] He repeatedly stressed the importance of past experiences and prior knowledge in making sense of new situations or present experiences. Therefore, all new knowledge and newly introduced skills are greatly influenced by each students culture, especially their family environment. Language skills are particularly critical for creating meaning and linking new ideas to past experiences and prior knowledge. According to Vygotsky, internalized skills or psychological tools are used to gain mastery over ones own behavior and cognition. [7] Primary among these tools is the development of speech and its relation to thought. [8] Vygotsky maintained that language plays a central role in cognitive development. He argued that language was the tool for determining the ways a child learns how to think. That is because complex concepts are conveyed to the child through words. Learning, according to Vygotsky, always involves some type of external experience being transformed into internal processes through the use of language. [9] It follows that speech and language are the primary tools used to communicate with others, promoting learning. Vygotsky promoted the development of higher level thinking and problem solving in education. If situations are designed to have students utilize critical thinking skills, their thought processes are being challenged and new knowledge gained. [10] The knowledge achieved through experience also serves as a foundation for the behaviors of every individual. [11] II. Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? How is it different from belief? What is a mistake? A lie? According to Davydov and Kerr, it was a momentous occasion in the history of psychology when Vygotsky asserted specific functions are not given to a person at birth but are only provided as cultural and social patterns. [12] Vygotsky saw intellectual abilities as being much more specific to the culture in which the child was reared. [13] Through observation and study Vygotsky came to understand that people adapted to their surrounding environment based on their interpretations and individual perceptions of it. [14] Thus, humans are not born with knowledge nor is knowledge independent of social context. Rather, one gains knowledge as one develops by way of social interactions with peers and adults. Vygotsky does not make as drastic a distinction between knowledge and belief as some other heorists do. For him, knowledge is obtained through past experiences, social situations, as well as ones general environment. In similar manner, beliefs are instilled into an individual via culture and parental upbringing. Mistakes are crucial in Vygotskys theory of learning. In the course of development, mistakes are made during the process of concept formation. They are important in that they impact future learning. [15] From Vygotskys perspective, A concept emerges and takes shape in the course of a complex interaction aimed at the solution of a problem [A] concept is n active part of the intellectual process. [16] We see, then that, for Vygotsky, concept formation is a dynamic, ever-changing activity during which the child relies on their own perception to make sense of objects that appear to them to be unrelated the child creates his or her own subjective relationships between objects and then mistakes his or her egocentric perspective for reality. [17] This stage of development is known, paradoxically, as incoherent coherence. [18] During this stage, the making of mistakes is an integral part of a childs development. Also at this time, the childs organization schema becomes less egocentric and begin to incorporate additional information gained from experience into his or her thought processes. [19] In this way, mistakes can be corrected and new knowledge gained. Therefore mistakes are developmentally necessary, resulting from the role of social interaction in transformation of prior knowledge. [20] Tentatively one might infer that Vygotsky would view a lie as something that occurs as a result of the desire to conform to social norms. For example one might feel one way but report a more socially acceptable reality. III. Theory of Human Nature: What is a human being? How does it differ from other species? What are the limits of human potential? According to Marxist theory, The essence of man is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In its reality it is the ensemble of the social relations. [21] Vygotsky would agree that we develop as humans through the ways we interact with those around us. His view of human nature fits with his Marxist ideology. Human beings can only be understood within the context the time period and the part of the world in which they live. Human nature cannot be understood as never-changing and universal, but as always depending on its specific social and historical formation. This principle does not leave out biological factors. [22] To be human, however, means that you have surpassed a level of functioning that your biological traits would otherwise dictate. [23] Although some animals have the ability to create and use material tools, humans have the ability to utilize psychological tools. In other words, human beings are differentiated by their ability to develop psychological tools that are used to gain mastery over ones own behavior and cognition[24] that other forms of life are not capable of developing. Some psychological tools include: language, different forms of numeration and counting, mnemotechniques, algebraic symbolism, works of art, writing, schemes, diagrams, maps, blueprints, etc. [25] In his theories, Vygotsky placed great emphasis on the importance of spoken language, arguably the most critical tool that sets us apart from other species. He asserts that speech is a very powerful psychological tool that lays the foundation for basic structures of thinking later in ones development. [26] Vygotsky further explains that speech is the first psychological tool used by children to communicate with others who share the environment. Naturally, this is continued through adulthood, as speech is a primary tool used for learning. Vygotsky insists that humans learn best in cooperation with other humans. [27] Vygotsky contended that, unlike animals who react only to the environment, humans have the capacity to alter the environment for their own purposes. It is this adaptive capacity that distinguishes humans from lower forms of life. The animal can only be trained. It can only acquire new habits. It can through exercises and combinations perfect its intellect, but is not capable of mental development through instruction in the real sense of the word. [28] Vygotskys concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) posits that human potential is theoretically limitless; but the practical limits of human potential depend upon quality social interactions and residential environment. This zone of proximal development is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. [29] In theory, then, so long as a person has access to a more capable peer, any problem can be solved. IV. Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired? According to Piaget, learning is what results from both mental and physical maturation plus experience. 30] That is, development preceded learning. In contrast Vygotsky observed that learning processes lead development. [31] Vygotsky maintained that learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human, psychological functions. [32] In other words, learning is what leads to the development of higher order thinking. According to Vygotsky the two primary means of learning occur through social interaction and language. Language greatly enhances humans ability to engage in social interactions and share their experiences. The most important fact uncovered through the study of thought and speech is that their relationship undergoes many changes. [33] Initially, a childs new knowledge is interpsychological, meaning it is learned through interaction with others, on the social level. [34] Later, this same knowledge becomes intrapsychological, meaning inside the child, and the new knowledge or skill is mastered on an individual level. [35] The previously mentioned idea of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is central to Vygotskys view on how learning takes place. He described this zone as, the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. [36] Vygotsky maintained that learning occurs just above the students current level of competence. [37] It follows then, that the copying student will have a higher performance when working with a more capable student. The zone of proximal development works in conjunction with the use of scaffolding. Scaffolding is a six-step approach to assisting learning and development of individuals within their zone of proximal development. [38] Knowledge, skills and prior experiences, which come from an individuals general knowledge, create the foundation of scaffolding for potential development. At this stage, students interact with adults and/or peers to accomplish a task which could possibly not be completed independently. The use of language and shared experience is essential to successfully implementing scaffolding as a learning tool. 39] V. Theory of Transmission: Who is to teach? By what methods? What will the curriculum be? Vygotsky defined those who are to teach as the More Knowledgeable Other. The MKO is anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a specific task, concept or process. [40] Traditionally the MKO is thought of as a teacher or an older adult. However, this is not always the case. Other possibilities for the MKO could be a peer, sibling, a younger person, or even a computer. The key to MKO is that they must have more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does. [41] Teachers or more capable peers can raise the students competence through the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Vygotskys findings suggest methodological procedures for the classroom. In Vygotskian perspective, the ideal role of the teacher is that of providing scaffolding (collaborative dialogue) to assist students on tasks within their zones of proximal development. [42] During scaffolding the first step is to build interest and engage the learner. Once the learner is actively participating, the given task should be simplified by breaking it into smaller subtasks. During this task, the teacher needs to keep the learner focused, while concentrating on the most important ideas of the assignment. One of the most integral steps in scaffolding consists of keeping the learner from becoming frustrated. The final task associated with scaffolding involves the teacher modeling possible ways of completing tasks, which the learner can then imitate and eventually internalize. Vygotsky recommended a social context wherein a more competent learner would be paired with a less competent one, so that the former can elevate the latters competence. This social context promotes sustained achievement and cognitive growth for less competent students. [44] Accordingly, students need to work together to construct their learning, teach each other so to speak, in a socio-cultural environment. In-class opportunities for collaboration on difficult problem-solving tasks will offer support to students who are struggling with the material. By interacting with more capable students who continue to mediate transactions between the struggling students and the content, all students will benefit. [45] The implications of Vygotskys theories and observations for educators are several and significant. In Vygotskys view, the teacher has the collaborative task of guiding and directing the childs activity. [46] Children can then solve novel problems on the basis of a model he [sic] has been shown in class. [47] In other words, children learn by solving problems with the help of the teacher, who models processes for them and his or her eers, in a classroom environment that is directed by the teacher. In essence, the child imitates the teacher through a process of re-creating previous classroom collaboration. [48] It is important to note that the teacher does not control the class with rule and structure; rather, the teacher collaborates with the students and provides support and direction. [49] Assignments and activities that can be accurately completed by a student without assistance, indicate that the student has previously mastered the necessary prior knowledge. In the majority of classrooms this would be the conclusion of a unit; however, this is Vygotskys entry point. However, as previously mentioned, the teacher must carefully group the student that can potentially develop in collaboration with a more capable person. [50] In our research, we found limited references to Vygotskys specific views on curriculum content. One exception involves the teaching of writing to preschoolers. According to Garton and Pratt, Vygotsky argued for shifting the teaching of writing to preschool. They explain that Vygotsky differentiated between two forms of speech: spoken and written. Vygotsky, as cited by Garton and Pratt, asserts that a child develops an understanding that spoken speech can be symbolized in writing by progressing from drawing things to drawing speech. [51] Vygotsky suggested then that the preschool curriculum should be designed so that it was organized to ease childs transition from drawing things to drawing speech. [52] Learning to master tools and technologies should also be included in the curriculum. Students should be taught how to use tools such as the computer, resource books, and graphs in order to better utilize these tools in the future. [53] In this way, students will benefit as these tools and technologies influence the individuals thinking (along with the development of language). [54] In sum, Vygotskys findings suggest that the curriculum should generally challenge and stretch learners competence. [55] The curriculum should provide many opportunities to apply previous skills, knowledge and experiences, with authentic activities connected to real-life environment. [56] Since children learn much through interaction, curricula should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks. [57] VI. Theory of Society: What is society? What institutions are involved in the educational process? According to Vygotsky, society is the bearer of the cultural heritage without which the development of mind is impossible. [58] This society allows the learner to develop cognitively through social interactions. As a result, the use of language makes it possible for a child to communicate and share the environment from within their society. Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). [59] Perhaps Vygotsky was comfortable generalizing about society in this way because he was living in post-revolutionary times. The revolution had been accomplished in Russia, and the New Soviet Man, was emerging in the Soviet Union, and the dictatorship of the proletariat was at hand. So far as the institutions involved in the educational process are concerned, Moll reports that Vygotsky considered school the best laboratory of human psychology. [60] He noted: At first glace, it may be easily seen that no special educational environment is needed, that education may be accomplished in any environment whatsoever. It is not very hard to conclude that no sort of artificial educational environment has to be created, that life educates better than any school. This view is wrong, however. [61] For Vygotsky, society (and therefore social interaction) happens in schools. Schools are incorporated into the larger society and have that as their context, so that some of their activity settings are determined by this larger contextuality. [62] For Vygotsky the classroom is also a social organization that is representative of the larger social community it is the social organization that is the agent for change in the individual. [63] Fhis statement was not meant to imply that informal education was not important. [64] Rather, as we stated before, for Vygotsky informal education is used by children through speech and language to develop higher mental functions. He stressed that childrens learning begins long before they attend school. Any learning a child encounters in school always has a previous history. [65] VII. Theory of Opportunity: Who is to be educated? Who is to be schooled? Vygotsky repeatedly asserts that it is within the social environment that learning takes place. Since no individual is able to escape their social surroundings, all within a society are inadvertently being educated.